A Historical Overview of Multilingual Education (MLE) in India
A Historical Overview of Multilingual Education (MLE) in India
Below is a brief history of Mother-Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) and, in particular, how it evolved in India. It focuses only on the main points. Still, writing history is always subjective, and therefore we welcome being informed of any crucial missing information.
Global picture
Not much has been documented on bilingual or multilingual education in countries' histories. The earliest record we could find was that, in 1839, bilingual education was adopted at the request of parents of German speaking families in America.
UNESCO in 1953 published a paper titled "The use of the vernacular languages in education" that recommended the use of the mother tongue in education. However, for several decades not much attention was given to that. Finally, in the 1990s, MLE did get incorporated into educational systems in a few countries, often in collaboration with UNESCO, SIL International, or other international agencies. In 2003, UNESCO’s position paper “Education in a multilingual world” brought up strong support for the use of the mother tongue in education for the UN’s Literacy Decade which resulted in a significant increase of attention to the issue.
The context of the Indian policies
While studying the Indian context, we must mention four major policies and documents: the Indian Constitution (1950), the Three-Language Formula Policy 1956/57, the National Curriculum Framework 2005/2022, and the National Education Policy 2020.
The Indian Constitution
The Constitution of India established in 1950 lists the official languages in the Eighth Schedule. It originally included 14 languages, but more languages were added in 1992 and 2004 and now it includes 22 official languages of the Republic of India. The Constitution also recognises that there are more languages than those 22. Article 29 (1) and Article 350 (A) safeguard the linguistic rights of the minority, which is further unpacked in Article 29 (1): Any section of citizens having a distinct language, script, or culture has the right to conserve the same. Article 46: State to promote the educational needs of the weaker sections of the society and Article 350A: Every State is to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage to linguistic minorities.
The Three-Language Formula
Starting in 1956, and with extensive revisions in the 1960s, India developed a three-language formula (TLF). It was first incorporated into the National Education Policy in 1968 by the Indira Gandhi government. Originally it meant, ‘In Hindi-speaking states: Hindi, English, and a modern Indian language (preferably one of the southern languages) and in non-Hindi-speaking states: English, Hindi, and the regional language.’
Presently the three-language formula continues to be promoted by the government but "with greater flexibility", and stating that "no language will be imposed on any state."
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF)
The National Curriculum Framework 2005 was made to guide the institutions and schools in encouraging the overall development of the children and the move away from textbook-centric learning. It emphasises the importance of imparting primary education in the mother tongue of the child. The 2022 National Curriculum Framework for foundational stages (NCF-FS) under the National Education Policy, 2020 recommends that the mother tongue should be the primary medium of instruction for children till eight years of age.
The National Education Policy (2020)
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 makes the case for the use of the home language till grade 5 and preferably till grade 8. The NEP also calls for efforts to be made to close the gap that exists between the language being spoken at home and the language being used at school. For the implementation of the National Education Policy 2020, the education ministry, in the SARTHAQ document released in 2021, provides a guideline on the execution of the NEP. It outlines a two-pronged approach. The first is the tool of linguistic mapping in developing the curriculum in regional languages. The second is the implementation of a multilingual approach to imparting education. Linguistic mapping, development of curriculum, and selection of teachers will be undertaken to promote mother-tongue education.
More details on the policies are given in this overview of MLE Related Policies.
Implementation
Worldwide, the push for the use of the language of the child has from the start been in conflict with the desire of the parents to get their children educated in prestigious languages. India was no exception to that, with English being the most popular language, followed by Hindi and the state languages. Still, since the beginning of the century, the state governments have been developing MLE pilots with the support of NGOs and universities. Political pressure caused those projects to often remain pilots with limited scope for upscaling.
NGOs also developed some MLE programs. However, those projects were mostly informal, small-scale, and experimental, trying to test new methods. We have often seen that NGOs, institutions, and the Government need each other to make implementation happen. Below are some highlights given per state.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh started MLE in 2003. Two thousand, three hundred schools in 8 tribal languages were covered and textbooks for Grade 1, 2, and 3 were created. Other resources included tribal language textbooks (Grade 1-5), a maths textbook (Grade 1- 5), environmental science (EVS) textbooks (Grade 4-5), children’s literature in the tribal language, a phrase book, dictionary and glossary, and a teacher’s manual. There are following new plans (by the Tribal Cultural Research and Training Mission and NGO NEG-FIRE), such as the Teacher training modules, MTB-MLE to be included in 1350 schools and six primers in six tribal languages. The languages covered were Koya, Sevara, Adivasi Oria, Jatapu, Kuvi and Konda Dora. You can read about these developments on our blog post here.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh started MLE in 2003. Two thousand, three hundred schools in 8 tribal languages were covered and textbooks for Grade 1, 2, and 3 were created. Other resources included tribal language textbooks (Grade 1-5), a maths textbook (Grade 1- 5), environmental science (EVS) textbooks (Grade 4-5), children’s literature in the tribal language, a phrase book, dictionary and glossary, and a teacher’s manual. There are following new plans (by the Tribal Cultural Research and Training Mission and NGO NEG-FIRE), such as the Teacher training modules, MTB-MLE to be included in 1350 schools and six primers in six tribal languages. The languages covered were Koya, Sevara, Adivasi Oria, Jatapu, Kuvi and Konda Dora. You can read about these developments on our blog post here.
Odisha
In 2005 ,Odisha conducted Child Census in 72000 schools and found out that there were 11479 primary schools with linguistic diversities. Based on the linguistic survey, Odisha decided to adopt MLE as a programme in 2006 approved by the State Tribal Advisory Committee headed by the Chief Minister Odisha. In 2006 the state in 10 tribal languages and development of curriculum , and supporting materials. In 2007 started with 157 schools Odisha scaled up the MLE school to 1584 school from class I to class V using tribal mother tongue as a subject and as medium for teaching maths and EVS. Odia was introduced in class II and English was introduced in Class III. Mother tongue continued to be a subject from class I to Class V. Besides revitalisation of indigenous languages in school and community, the state government introduced Srujan, a multicultural education programme in view of supporting MLE programmes which helped the community school linkages.
The languages covered ten tribal languages ; these are Sanhtali, Saora, Munda, Koya, Kuvi, Kui, Kishan, Oram, Juang and Bonda. Culturally responsive curriculum in ten tribal languages was developed by the indigenous teachers with the help of SIL International and the international basic literacy approach was adopted following the meaning and comprehension and basic literacy learning. Teachers from tribal areas were trained on language attitude, language teaching approaches and methods. By 6th July 2014, the state government of Odisha introduced MLE Policy in Odisha and appointed language teachers in MLE schools to provide tribal language textbooks. In 2013, the Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS) boarding school in Odisha started a Mother-Tongue-based Multilingual Early Childhood Education Learning Laboratory with support from the Bernard van Leer Foundation. Teaching is happening in at least 10 tribal languages.
Assam
In 2015, preschool curricula (Nua Arunima books) were developed in 10 tribal languages in 12 districts. The languages included were: Juang, Kisan, Koya, Kui, Munda, Oram, Bonda, Kuvi, Santhali, and Saura. In 2022, it was announced that the program would be extended to 8 more tribal languages. The Government of Assam recognized the Hmar language as a medium of instruction as early as 1969. Also Garo has been part of the school system for decades. In 2006, workshops were conducted in tea gardens in the local language (Sadri). Materials were developed, but it was only in 2010 that we read about the start of a school in Sadri by the NGO PAJHRA. The program brought forth literacy materials, training of community schools, curriculum development, production of a transition primer, and also evaluation. It also established three MLE schools in two districts, Lakhimpur and Sonitpur.
For the Rabha language, graded reading materials, training of teachers, development of curricula are made available by Gauhati University and SIL. The community established and conducted mother-tongue classes in four schools across Assam and Meghalaya. The Amri Karbi Literature Committee, SIL, and the Linguistics Department of Gauhati University, and the State Resource Centre, Assam conducted workshops, which brought forth teaching learning materials, the training of community teachers, and the development of a curriculum. From 2008-2014, nine Amri Karbi villages in Assam and Meghalaya offered mother-tongue classes in informal schools. Dr Palash Nath, in collaboration with the Singpho community, brought about mother-tongue literacy materials, the development of curriculum, and the training of teachers. In 2009, the community established an informal MT school which was extended to two more villages. In 2022, the Assam education department stated that they will seek to introduce four languages as new media of instruction: Rabha, Mising, Tiwa, and Dewri.
Jharkhand
In 2016 in Jharkhand, with support from M-TALL Akhra and UNICEF textbooks were developed in 5 tribal languages (Santhali, Mundari, Ho, Kurukh, and Kharia) and 2 regional languages (Bangla and Odia). Also picture dictionaries in 7 languages were developed for use in Anganwadi Centers (pre-school education centres) and Primary Schools. Additional resources available are bilingual word cards, story cards, MLE bridge material for class 1 to 5, and conversation materials. M-TALL Akhra (Mother-Tongue-based Active Language Learning Akhra) set up by Binay Pattanayak has undertaken 2 state-wide linguistic surveys in Jharkhand in 2012 and 2022. In 2022, the state education department has introduced a new system of learning titled ‘Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE). This is a pilot project for children studying in grades 1 to 5. Languages such as Ho, Mundari, Kurukh, Santhali, and Kharia will be taught.
Chhattisgarh
In Chhattisgarh, preparations for MLE started in 2006. MLE materials in 7 tribal languages: Gondi (Kanke), Gondi (Dantewada), Halbi, Sargujiya, Kudukh, Chhattisgarhi, and Sadri are available. MLE language textbooks for Grade 3, 4, and 5 were made available in addition to a teacher’s book and alphabet books.
Rajasthan
In 2014, the Rajasthan state government, in collaboration with UNICEF, started a pilot program in 10 schools at which the children in the first grade were taught in the local language. An MOU was signed between the Language Learning Foundation in 2018 and the Rajasthan Council of Secondary Education(RCSE) in order to develop the capacity of teachers and implement multilingual education in the government schools of the Dungarpur and Banswada districts.In 2021, the State Department stated that they had plans to introduce an ‘Education in Mother Tongue’ programme in Primary and Pre-Primary. The curriculum in English, Hindi, and the local language and the training of teachers in the local language would be started.
MLE in various National Institutions
As momentum for MLE was picking up at the beginning of the century, institutions in India also started to contribute. Universities such as Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), Guwahati University, and DelhI Universities hosted conferences and produced written material on MLE. Other Institutions such as UNESCO, UNICEF, National Council of Education Research and Training( NCERT)/State Council of Education Research and Training (SCERT), and the Central Institute of Indian Languages were also contributors to the cause of MLE in their own way.
In 2009, the National Multilingual Education Resource Centre (NMRC) was set up under Jawaharlal Nehru University with support of UNICEF in 2009. Prof Ajit Mohanty and Prof Minati Panda were the key resource people and coordinators. They worked on a newsletter, workshops, project support, etc. Presently this resource centre is no longer functioning.
The Language Learning Foundation is an important organisation for MLE implementation. It was established by Dr Dhir Jhingran (IAS) in 2015. They presently work with state government Education Departments in 8 states. They try to change the way foundational education is imparted by promoting early education in the mother tongue. They are the first ones to carry out language mapping of 30,000 schools in Chhattisgarh.
From the beginning of the movement, SIL International has provided informal support. Individual SIL staff provided training and consulting, speakers for conferences, instructional materials and papers, and overall support.
See also the National Multilingual Education Resource Consortium document: Resources for Multilingual Education in India n.d. (maybe 2015)
Institutions
As momentum for MLE was picking up at the beginning of the century, institutions in India also started to contribute. Universities such as Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), Guwahati University, and DelhI Universities hosted conferences and produced written material on MLE. Other Institutions such as UNESCO, UNICEF, National Council of Education Research and Training( NCERT)/State Council of Education Research and Training (SCERT), and the Central Institute of Indian Languages were also contributors to the cause of MLE in their own way.
MLE -related conferences in India
In 2009, the National Multilingual Education Resource Centre (NMRC) was set up under Jawaharlal Nehru University with support of UNICEF in 2009. Prof Ajit Mohanty and Prof Minati Panda were the key resource people and coordinators. They worked on a newsletter, workshops, project support, etc. Presently this resource centre is no longer functioning.
The Language Learning Foundation is an important organisation for MLE implementation. It was established by Dr Dhir Jhingran (IAS) in 2015. They presently work with state government Education Departments in 8 states. They try to change the way foundational education is imparted by promoting early education in the mother tongue. They are the first ones to carry out language mapping of 30,000 schools in Chhattisgarh.
From the beginning of the movement, SIL International has provided informal support. Individual SIL staff provided training and consulting, speakers for conferences, instructional materials and papers, and overall support.
Current trends
The current trends in India continue to see a push for English and Hindi. It remains difficult to change the strongly entrenched institutionalisation of English and Hindi. The NEP may pave the way for mother-tongue-based education but has the risk of getting derailed by the pro-Hindi political agenda. In the pedagogical realm, there is a move from a one-mother-tongue assumption to a multiple-languages assumption. In that context, concepts such as “multilingual classroom” and “translanguaging” are gaining popularity.
We continue to see efforts on part of the Government, NGOs, educational institutions, international organisations, and pioneering individuals to use the local languages of the children in the classrooms. Yet we are still at the beginning of the story of MLE, and it remains to be seen whether the impacts of MLE will spread into all aspects of education thereby achieving true integration of those long included in receiving an accessible education.
Drafted by Upasana Lepcha, edited by Karsten van Riezen, February 2023
References:
Rethinking education,Vol. 12, No. 3, 1998 - History of Bilingual Education - Rethinking Schools.
UNESCO (1953). The use of the vernacular languages in education. Monographs on Foundations of Education, No. 8. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2003a). Education in a multilingual world. UNESCO Education Position Paper. Paris: UNESCO.
Multilingual education launched - New Indian Express
Mother tongue learning in eight more tribal languages - New Indian Express
Bapui, Vanlal Tluonga. 2017. ‘Teaching of Hmar Language with Special Reference to Assam’ 6 (2).
Sadri school started - MLE-India Blog
Teaching in the tribal languages of Assam - MLE-India Blog
See for more details: MLE in Assam - Dec 2022, an overview compiled by Dr Palash Nath Asstt Prof, Anundoram Borooah Institute of Language, Art and Culture (ABILAC)
Studies in Tribal Languages in Schools of Assam Soon | Guwahati News - Times of India
Jharkhand: Pilot project to teach primary classes in native languages begins - Times of India
Lessons in mother tongue for Rajasthan schools - MLE-India Blog
Rajasthan: Soon, local language to get a place in primary education | Jaipur News - Times of India
NGO NEG-FIRE website - https://www.negfire.org/